Research advances in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-related hepatocellular carcinoma / 临床肝胆病杂志

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)/nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has gradually become one of the main causes of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in Western developed countries. Different from the typical evolution process of hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and liver cancer, nearly 40% NAFLD patients can progress into HCC without experiencing liver cirrhosis, suggesting other mechanisms may play a role in this process. This article elaborates on the latest research advances in the pathogenesis of NAFLD-related HCC.

Induction of pluripotent stem cells by reprogramming human ocular fibroblasts under xeno-free conditions / Indução de células-tronco pluripotentes pela reprogramação de fibroblastos oculares humanos sob condições xeno-livre

ABSTRACT Purposes: To develop an efficient and xeno-free standard eye-derived induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming protocol for use during induced pluripotent stem cell-based cell therapies in treating retinal degenerative diseases and to compare the relative effectiveness of both animal- and non-animal-derived culture systems in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells. Methods: Primary cultured human pterygium fibroblasts and human Tenon's capsule fibroblasts were induced to induced pluripotent stem cells using a non-in­tegrated virus under two xeno-free systems; as part of this study, a traditional non-xeno-free reprogramming system was also assessed. Induced pluripotent stem cell clones were selected and counted by live staining. Reprogramming efficiencies were evaluated between the fibroblasts and among different culture systems. In a series of experiments, such as PCR and immunofluorescence staining, the induced pluripotent stem cells were characterized. Results: Human pterygium fibroblast- and human Tenon's capsule fibroblast-derived induced pluripotent stem cells were successfully established using different reprogramming systems, under which they exhibited properties of induced pluripotent stem cells. Reprogramming efficiencies of induced pluripotent stem cells using the cell therapy system, the traditional system, and the E6/E8 system were 0.014%, 0.028%, and 0.001%, respectively, and those of human pterygium fibroblast- and human Tenon's capsule fibroblast-derived induced pluripotent stem cells-using the aforementioned systems-were 0.018% and 0.017%, respectively. Conclusions: Sendai virus facilitates induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming of ocular fibroblasts-both human pterygium and human Tenon's capsule fibroblasts being safe and efficient for induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming. Although the reprogramming efficiencies of ocular-derived induced pluripotent stem cells under xeno-free conditions were not superior to those observed using the traditional reprogramming system, the cell therapy system reprogramming system is a good option when induced pluripotent stem cells are to be induced under xeno-free conditions.

RESUMO Objetivos: Desenvolver um protocolo padrão, eficiente e xeno-livre, para a reprogramação de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas, que possa ser usado durante as terapias de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas para o tratamento de doenças degenerativas da retina, e comparar a eficácia relativa de sistemas de cultivo de origem animal e de origem não animal na geração de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas. Métodos: Cultivos primários de fibroblastos de pterígio humano e de fibroblastos da cápsula de Tenon humanos foram induzidos a células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas usando um vírus não integrado sob dois sistemas xeno-livres; um sistema tradicional de reprogramação não xeno-livre também foi avaliado como parte deste estudo. Os clones de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas foram selecionados e contados por coloração de células vivas. As eficiências de reprogramação foram avaliadas entre os diferentes fibroblastos e entre os diferentes sistemas de cultivo. Uma série de experimentos, como o PCR e a coloração por imunofluorescência, foram conduzidos para caracterizar as células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas. Resultados: Célu­las-tronco pluripotentes induzidas derivadas de fibroblastos de pterígio humano e fibroblastos da cápsula de Tenon humanos foram estabelecidas com sucesso sob diferentes sistemas de reprogramação e exibiram propriedades de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas. As eficiências de reprogramação das células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas usando o sistema de terapia celular, o sistema tradicional e o sistema E6/E8 foram 0,014, 0,028% e 0,001%, respectivamente. Além disso, as efi­ciências de reprogramação de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas derivadas de fibroblastos de pterígio humano e de fibroblastos da cápsula de Tenon humanos usando todos os sistemas acima foram de 0,018% e 0,017%, respectivamente. Conclusões: O vírus Sendai pode ser usado para facilitar a reprogramação de fibroblastos oculares pelas células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas. Tanto os fibroblastos de pterígio humano quanto os fibroblastos da cápsula de Tenon humanos são seguros e eficientes para a reprogramação de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas. Embora as eficiências de reprogramação das células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas de origem ocular sob condições xeno-livres não tenham sido superiores às eficiências observadas para o sistema tradicional de reprogramação, o sistema de reprogramação sistema de terapia celular é uma boa opção para a indução de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas sob condições xeno-livres.

Research progress cellular reprogramming technology and induced pluripotent stem cells for retinal diseases treatment / 中华实验眼科杂志

Current advances in cellular reprogramming technology has demonstrated that the identity of a cell can be converted by the use of master transcription factors to reprogram the transcriptome. Notably,this allows us to convert somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs),providing a feasible method to generate patient-specific pluripotent stem cells. This technology was firstly discovered by Shinya Yamanaka's group in 2006. The initial iPSCs were formed by the induction of dedifferentiation in mouse fibroblasts using transcription factors:Oct4,Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc. This approach has tremendous medical potentials to revolutionize the way we study and develop treatment for ocular diseases. Here we reviewed the potential of using patient-specific iPSCs for 3D disease modeling and various types of retinal disease modeling,cell replacement therapy and clinical trials,high-throughput screening test and drug toxicity testing. We also discussed the recent development of direct reprogramming and the future direction for utilising iPSCs and cellular reprogramming technology for eye research.

Chemicals as the Sole Transformers of Cell Fate

Forced expression of lineage-specific transcription factors in somatic cells can result in the generation of different cell types in a process named direct reprogramming, bypassing the pluripotent state. However, the introduction of transgenes limits the therapeutic applications of the produced cells. Numerous small-molecules have been introduced in the field of stem cell biology capable of governing self-renewal, reprogramming, transdifferentiation and regeneration. These chemical compounds are versatile tools for cell fate conversion toward desired outcomes. Cell fate conversion using small-molecules alone (chemical reprogramming) has superiority over arduous traditional genetic techniques in several aspects. For instance, rapid, transient, and reversible effects in activation and inhibition of functions of specific proteins are of the profits of small-molecules. They are cost-effective, have a long half-life, diversity on structure and function, and allow for temporal and flexible regulation of signaling pathways. Additionally, their effects could be adjusted by fine-tuning concentrations and combinations of different small-molecules. Therefore, chemicals are powerful tools in cell fate conversion and study of stem cell and chemical biology in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, transgene-free and chemical-only transdifferentiation approaches provide alternative strategies for the generation of various cell types, disease modeling, drug screening, and regenerative medicine. The current review gives an overview of the recent findings concerning transdifferentiation by only small-molecules without the use of transgenes.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells: Next Generation Stem Cells to Clinical Applications / 한양의대학술지

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) are specially manipulated cells from somatic cells by the introduction of four factors that are reprogrammed. The properties of iPSC are similar to embryonic stem cells (ESC) characteristic of self-renewal and pluripotency. The technology of reprogramming somatic cells to iPSC enables the generation of patient-specific cells that can be used as powerful tools for drug screening, in vitro models for human disease and autologous transplantation. The iPSC technology provides a priceless resource for regenerative medicine but there are still changing obstacles over the safety of iPSC in avoiding induction of tumorigenicity and maintaining high purity of re-differentiated cells from iPSC to produce more functional cells for cell therapy. A variety of methods to overcome the limitation of iPSC application applied in the clinical setting have been developed. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in iPSC generation and differentiation techniques to facilitate clinical application of iPSC with future potential in regenerative medicine.

The Current Status of Directed Differentiation Technology / 한양의대학술지

The direct reprogramming of a terminally differentiated cell into another lineage using defined combinations of factors has fundamentally changed traditional concepts of the inalterability of differentiated cells. Many studies have achieved direct conversion into various cell types in recent years, and this strategy is considered to be a promising approach for inducing functional cells. Here, we review work on direct reprogramming, from the early pioneering studies to the most recent, including the discovery of novel reprogramming factors, molecular mechanisms, and strategies. We also discuss the applications of direct reprogramming and the perspectives and challenges of this novel technology.

Células Troncales en el Desarrollo y las Perspectivas de Reprogramación Celular para la Regeneración / Stem Cells in Development and the Perspectives of Cellular Reprogramming for Regeneration

Los organismos multicelulares se desarrollan a partir de una sola célula: el cigoto. A lo largo de su ontogenia, las células que derivan del cigoto despliegan distintos programas celulares, los cuales son estabilizados por mecanismos epigenéticos. Los programas de las células troncales son más inclusivos, siendo mayor el silenciamiento que la activación de genes durante el proceso de diferenciación celular. Experimentalmente, se ha logrado que células en estado de diferenciación terminal reactiven el programa de células troncales y recuperen su pluripotencialidad, proceso llamado reprogramación. Esto despierta esperanzas en el avance de una medicina regenerativa con nuevas capacidades para el tratamiento de enfermedades crónicas, sin las restricciones éticas del uso de células embrionarias.

Multicellular organisms develop from one cell: the zygote. During ontogeny, cells derived from the zygote display different cellular programs that are stabilized through epigenetic mechanisms. The programs of stem cells seem more inclusive, and during the process of differentiation a larger number of genes are silenced than activated. The reactivation of pluripotency recovers of the stem cell program in terminally differentiated cells has been achieved experimentally. This process, called reprogramming, brings new hope for the development of a regenerative medicine with new capabilities for the treatment of chronic diseases, without the ethic restrains imposed by the use of embryonic cells.

Cambiando la Identidad celular para crear una verdadera medicina personalizada / Changlng cell identity to create true personalized medicine

El Premio Nobel 2012 en Fisiología o Medicina fue concedido a Sir John Gurdon y Shinya Yamanaka por sus avances en la reprogramación celular. Estos descubrimientos no sólo cambiaron nuestra visión del proceso de diferenciación celular, pero también tienen el potencial de revolucionar la medicina. Proporcionando una breve contextualización histórica y un resumen sucinto de las metodologías actuales, presentamos los principales avances en la investigación básica, así como sus posibles aplicaciones en la clínica. Esta revisión tiene como objetivo proporcionar un panorama general del estado actual sobre el campo de reprogramacióncelular y sus implicaciones terapéuticas.

The 2012 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Sir John Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka for their breakthroughs in cellular reprogramming. These discoveries not only changed our view of the process of cell fate determination, but also hold the potential to revolutionize medicine. By providing a brief historical context and a succinct summary of the current methodologies, we present the major advances in basic research, as well as their potential applications to the clinic. This review aims to provide a concise overview of the current state of the field and its implications for therapy.

Contribución de la genética moderna al desarrollo de la reprogramación celular / Contribution of current genetics to development of cellular reprogramming

El avance en el conocimiento de la genética y en especial de la biología molecular, dio paso a una nueva era: la genómica, y a nuevos conceptos como transcriptoma, proteoma, metaboloma, epigenoma, que permiten el estudio de la estructura, organización y función de todos los genes y sus productos, así como de los mecanismos implicados en la regulación de su expresión y el modo en que unos genes interactúan con otros. El uso de nuevas tecnologías en la investigación con células madre favoreció el desarrollo de las células madre pluripotentes inducidas, con el empleo de numerosos métodos para su obtención. Esto demostró que la adición de un reducido número de genes posibilita la reprogramación de células somáticas y la formación de células madre pluripotentes con características embrionarias, sin necesidad de utilizar embriones humanos, lo que tiene sus connotaciones éticas y posibles aplicaciones terapéuticas en medicina regenerativa

The advance of the genetics and specially of the molecular biology, gave rise to a new era: the genomic and to new concepts like transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, epigenome allowing us to study the structure, organization and function of all the genes and its products, as well as the mechanisms involved in regulation of its expression and the way in which some genes interacting each other. The use of new technologies in research of stem cells favored the development of induced pluripotent stem cells using the many methods for its detection. It was demonstrated that the addition of a reduced number of genes allows the reprogramming of somatic cells and the formation of pluripotent stem cells with embryonic features, without the use of human embryos, which has its ethical connotations and potential therapeutic applications in regenerative medicine

Células-tronco pluripotentes e doenças neurológicas / Pluripotent stem cells and neurological diseases

Grande parte do conhecimento atual dos fenótipos celulares relacionados a doenças neurológicas foi obtida a partir de estudos de tecidos cerebrais coletados após a morte do indivíduo. Essas amostras geralmente representam os estágios finais da doença e, portanto, não servem como fiel representação de como os sintomas aparecem. Além disso, nessas circunstâncias, a patologia observada pode muito bem ser um efeito secundário do processo patológico ou mesmo da deterioração do tecido em vez de um fenótipo celular autêntico. Da mesma forma, modelos animais nem sempre recapitulam exatamente a patologia das doenças em humanos. Neste artigo, pretendo apresentar uma visão crítica dos recentes avanços obtidos a partir da modelagem de doenças neurológicas humanas, utilizando células-tronco pluripotentes. O foco na reprogramação celular de células somáticas, gerando células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas, justifica-se em razão do grande potencial experimental não só para a modelagem de doenças humanas, mas também como ferramenta biotecnológica para triagem de novas drogas, contribuindo para uma futura medicina personalizada.

Most of our current knowledge about cellular phenotypes related to neurological diseases was gathered from studies performed in brain tissue collected postmortem. These samples often represent the end-stage of the disease process and may not represent a fair picture of how the disease developed over time. Futhermore, under these conditions, the pathology may as well be a secundary effect of the disease process or even due to the poor tissue condition and may not represent an authentic cellular phenotype. Likewise, animal models not always recapitulate the pathology from human disorders. In this article, I will present a critical view on the recent advances obtained from disease modeling using human pluripotent stem cells. The focus on cellular reprogramming as tool to generate patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells is justified by the great experimental potential, not only for disease modeling, but also as a biotecnological tool for future drug-screening platforms and personalized medicine.

No maleficenciaee investigación con células madre embrionarias / Non-maleficiencies in research with embryonic stem cells

La investigación con células madre embrionarias genera un debate ético sobre su obtención. Se han propuesto distintos métodos que intentan salvar este conflicto, como son la obtención de una única célula embrionaria, la transferencia nuclear alterada, el uso de embriones detenidos y la reprogramación celular. En este artículo se reflexiona sobre la valoración ética de estas nuevas técnicas y otros aspectos atinentes a la investigación con células madre embrionarias en relación con el principio de no maleficencia.

Research with embryonic stem cells generates a debate about its source. Different methods have been developed to save the conflict: obtaining a unique embryonic cell or using either altered nuclear transfer or arrested embryos, and cellular reprogramming. We are trying in this article to evaluate these new techniques as well as other aspects related to research with embryonic stem cells, starting from the "not to harm" principle.

A pesquisa com células-mães embrionárias origina um debate ético por sua obtenção. Para resolver este conflito, têm sido propostos diversos métodos: a obtenção duma única célula embrionária, a transferência nuclear alterada, o uso dos embriões detidos e a re-programação celular. Neste artigo reflexionamos sobre a valoração ética destas novas técnicas e outros aspectos relacionados com a pesquisa com células-mães embrionárias, vinculada com o princípio da maleficência.